Research by Topic Area

Algorithms and Decision Making

Algorithms and AI are changing the way that people make decisions. AI is increasingly being implemented into every stage of the employee selection context, from screening candidates to evaluating interview responses. This phenomenon raises serious questions about applicant reactions, fairness, and bias. Additionally, technology-mediated interviews, such as telephone, video-based, or online chat interviews, have become commonplace. While these types of technologies come with many benefits for Human Resource departments, research is needed in order to ensure organizations are implementing these solutions in a strategic and appropriate manner. In addition, as the features and characteristics of these technologies change, so do the psychological implications for both applicants and interviewers.  The WAVE lab is conducting several research projects that begin to address the impact that technology can have on the interview experience.

White, J. C. & Behrend, T. S. (2023). Rater perceptions of malfunctions in video interviews: A qualitative analysis. Poster presented at the 38th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Boston, MA, United States.

White, J. C. & Behrend, T. S. (2021). Rater attributions of malfunctions in videoconference interviews. Work, Aging, and Retirement.

Kaminsky, S. E. (2019). Video-recorded vs. synchronous interviews: Equivalence and applicant reactions (Doctoral dissertation, The George Washington University).

Horn, R. G. & Behrend, T. S. (2017). Video killed the interview star: Does picture-in-picture affect interview performance? Personnel Assessment and Decisions, 3(1), 51-59.

Blacksmith, N. B., Willford, J. C., & Behrend, T. S. (2016). Technology in the employment interview: A meta-analysis and future research agenda. Personnel Assessment and Decisions, 2(1), 12-20.

Blacksmith, N., Horn, R., & Behrend, T. S. (2013). Online interviews: An exploration of how text-only media influences information used to rate applicants. Poster presented at the 25th annual meeting of the Association for Psychological Science, Washington, DC.

Horn, R.G., Shen, R., & Behrend, TS (2015, May). An exploration of accent and medium effects in employment interviews.  Poster presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Psychological Science, New York, NY.

Electronic Surveillance and Monitoring

The shift towards digital work has raised a number of questions regarding personnel selection and evaluation. How does an organization measure the performance of employees who work remotely? How can an organization verify an applicant’s identity and proctor a test online? Electronic monitoring technology has been proposed to address both of these issues, among others. This  technology allows supervisors to collect information ranging from simple time stamps to detailed activity logs that capture every keystroke a person makes while online. While these tools are seen as a necessity by some organizations, they can have strong negative effects on a worker’s well-being and sense of autonomy. The WAVE lab is currently investigating the relationships between monitoring practices and employee behaviors.

Blachly, B. D., Shafiei, M., Kyeremateng, T. K., & Ravid, D. M. (2026). Implications of AI for workplace monitoring and privacy. In Thompson, I., Yankov, G., & Hernandez, I. (Eds.), AI for I-O Psychologists: Research and Applications. Oxford University Press.

Wolff, M. S., Ravid, D. M., & Behrend, T. S. (2025). Guidelines for the use of electronic performance monitoring. Organizational Dynamics, 54(1), 101026.

Ravid, D. M., White, J. C., Tomczak, D. L., Miles, A. F., & Behrend, T. S. (2023). A meta‐analysis of the effects of electronic performance monitoring on work outcomes. Personnel Psychology, 76(1), 5-40.

White, J. C., & Behrend, T. S. (2023). Workplace surveillance shapes worker experiences. In D. L. Blustein & L. Y. Flores (Eds). Rethinking work: Essays on building a better workplace. Routledge.

Ravid, D. M., Pitcher, B. D., Alge, B. J., & Behrend, T. S. (2022). Body-worn camera technologies can promote positive policing. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 15(4), 612-616.

Pitcher, B. D., Miles, A. F., Mancarella, P. J., & Behrend, T. S. (2022). Socioeconomic and job status differences in the experience of perceived unacceptable electronic performance monitoring. Technology, Mind, and Behavior.

Ravid, D. M., Tomczak, D. L., White, J. C., & Behrend, T. S. (2021). An incubator for electronic performance monitoring and work privacy research. Research incubator held at the 36th Annual Conference of the Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. (Virtual Conference).

Ravid, D. M., Tomczak, D. L., White, J. C., & Behrend, T. S. (2020). EPM 20/20: A review, framework, and research agenda for electronic performance monitoring. Journal of Management.

White, J. C., Ravid, D. M., & Behrend, T. S. (2019). Moderating effects of person and job characteristics on digital monitoring outcomes. Current Opinion in Psychology.

Brown Yost, A., Behrend, T. S., Howardson, G., Badger Darrow, J., D., & Jensen, J. M. (2018). Reactance to electronic surveillance: A test of antecedents and outcomes. Journal of Business and Psychology, 34(1), 1-16.

Tomczak, D. L., Willford, J. C., White, J. C., & Behrend, T. S. (2018, April). When electronic monitoring encourages withdrawal: The mediating role of autonomy. Poster presented at the 33rd annual meeting of the Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Chicago, IL.

Willford, J. C., Tomczak, D. L., Jimenez, W., Ravid, D., & Behrend, T. S. (2017, April). Electronic performance monitoring type predicts monitoring perceptions and contextual performance. Poster presented at the 32nd annual meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Orlando, FL.

Willford, J.C., Cox, M.J., Howard, R.H., & Behrend, TS. (2015, May). Workplace monitoring and surveillance: A mixed-methods examination of invasiveness perceptions. Poster presented at the 28th annual meeting of the Association for Psychological Science, New York, NY.

Willford, J. C., Howard, R. H., Cox, M. J., Badger, J. M., & Behrend, T. S. (2015, April). A latent class analysis of electronic performance monitoring practices.  Poster presented at the 30th annual meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Philadelphia, PA.

Karim, M. N., Kaminsky, S. E., & Behrend, T. S. (2014). Cheating, reactions, and performance in remotely proctored testing: An exploratory experimental study. Journal of Business and Psychology (special issue on Inductive Research), 29, 555-572. doi: 10.1007/s10869-014-9343-z

Brown, A. R., Badger, J. M., Behrend, T. S., & Jensen, J. M. (2012, April).Personality predicts acceptance of performance monitoring at work. Poster presented to the 27th annual meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Diego, CA.

Technology and Learning

Technology-enabled training allows trainees to engage in new learning environments. With virtual reality, learners can practice skills and build interests for a variety of jobs in a safe, controlled environment. Other digital, computer-based training programs provide learners with great amounts of control over  instructional (e.g., training pace, content, guidance, design, and sequence) and scheduling (i.e., when to complete a training program) features. The selected works below examine the effects of these new environments on learning and training reactions.

Blachly, B. D., Pitcher, B. D., White, J. C., & Behrend, T. S. (2025). Forging Technical Career Skills in Virtual Reality: How Immersion Shapes Learning and Engagement. International Journal of Training and Development.

Hou, D. X., Tracy, M. M., Pitcher, B. D., Blachly, B. D., Miles, A. F., & Behrend, T. S. (2026). From virtual sparks to reality: How VR exposure influences career intentions. Technology, Mind, and Behavior, 7(1), 4-16. [Editor’s Choice].

Pitcher, B. D., Ravid, D. M., Mancarella, P. J., & Behrend, T. S. (2022). Social learning dynamics influence performance and career self-efficacy in career-oriented educational virtual environments. Plos one, 17(9), e0273788.

Pitcher, B., Ravid, D. M., Mancarella, P. J., & Behrend, T. S. (2021, April). Exploring the learning affordances of virtual reality through social learning. Presentation at the 36th annual Meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, New Orleans, LA. (Virtual Conference).

Pitcher, B. D., Ravid, D. M., Behrend, T. S. (2019, October). Improving student attitudes and performance in STEM through virtual reality and constructive feedback. Symposium presented at the annual Technology, Mind, and Society Conference, Washington D.C.

Pitcher, B., Ravid, D. M., Shephard, C. L (2019, May). Improving student self-efficacy in STEM through virtual reality. Presentation at the 31st Association for Psychological Science Annual Convention, Washington, D.C.

Tomczak, D. L., & Behrend, T. S. (2017, May). Student outcomes stem from support: Perceived organizational support for innovation and technology implementation in schools. Poster presented at the 30th annual meeting of the Association for Psychological Science, Boston, MA.

Karim, M. N., & Behrend, T. S. (2014). Reexamining the nature of learner control: Dimensionality and effects on learning and training reactions. Journal of Business and Psychology, 29, 287-99.  doi: 10.1007/s10869-013-9309-6.

Karim, M. N., & Behrend, T. S. (2013). Controlling Engagement: The Effects of Learner Control on Engagement and Satisfaction. In C. Wankel & P. Blessinger (Eds). Increasing Student Engagement and Retention in e-Learning Environments: Web 2.0 and Blended Learning Technologies. Emerald Publishing Group.